Review of Academic Journal Articles Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Review of Academic Journal Articles - Essay Example 1. International and Comparative Employment Relations The book International and Comparative Employment Relations by Bamber, Lansbury and Wailes (2004) mainly contemplates on Industrial Relations and Human Resource management from an international perspective. To give the readers a comprehensive idea of employee relations, they have attempted an interdisciplinary approach which use analytical tools that have been drawn from various streams. To get a better view of internationally comparative approach to HR, the employee information in a number of states are also enclosed here by the authors. The employee relations of various developed countries that have well defined market economies have been described and systematically analyzed. The employ relation of the past is compared with the present affairs. With advent of globalization, the HR scenario got changed. The ripples of this change were visible in fields like industrial relation systems and collective bargaining. As globalization helped the growth of employee mobility, it is easy for the organizations to recruit and train employees at a cheaper cost. ... As far as the developing or underdeveloped countries are concerned, they could find some qualified workers from the developed countries. Apart from Britain, other nine countries are also examined in the light of a similar format that analyzed the environment relations and the people and organizations that play major roles in determining the solidarity of the employer- employee relationship. Studying the experiences of other countries helps the reader to get an overview of his own country and the existing practices (Bamber, Lansbury & Wailes, 2004). However, the matters discussed herein are confined to ten developed countries that have got a well developed market economy. The points of view of other countries have been forgotten conveniently. What the world witness in the present day is the triumphing of Asian nations including India and China as economic powers. Being two vast countries in terms of population, they provide majority of the work force to other countries. It is odd to a void such nations that constitute the majority of the labor force in prominent companies worldwide. If the details of employee and industrial relations of the developing countries also have been included this article would have been an excellent work providing information about the industrial relations around the world at a single glance. This book does not provide information as to how an organization maintains a good relationship between its managers and the employees. With the passage of time, industrial relations have become one of the most delicate and complex problems of the modern industrial society. The term industrial relations are used to

Cognitive Development Theories

Cognitive Development Theories Cognitive development refers to the development of the ability to think and reason. It is the transformation of the childs undifferentiated, unspecialized cognitive abilities into the adults conceptual competence and problem-solving skills (Driscoll, 2005). For many psychologists, cognitive development answers the questions about how children moves toward reaching the endpoint of gaining the adults skills, what stages they are pass through and how do changes in their thinking occur and what role dose learning play? Among many theories that are introduced to explain the children cognitive and knowledge development, Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky proposed the most influential theories that contributes to this component of psychology. Their theories underlined that the way the children learn and mentally grow has a critical role in their learning progress and abilities development. Piaget and Vygotsky were considered as constructivists who believed that learning occurs as a result of mental construction and by fitting the new information into the cognitive structure (scheme) that the learners already have (Driscoll, 2005). Constructivism approach also suggests that learning is affected by the context in which knowledge transfer occurs and by learners beliefs and attitudes . Piaget and Vygotsky also agreed on the societal influences in cognitive growth; however, they differ in the learning progression process. Piaget believed that children learn by interacting with their surroundings but with no impo rtance for the input from others and that learning occurs after development; Vygotsky, on the other hand, held the idea that learning happens before development and that children learn through history and symbolism and they value the input from their surroundings (Slavin, 2003). Further, it is imperative for teachers to understand the progression of cognitive development and the constructs of the major theories in the field in order to be able to attend the unique needs of each child and to develop the learning program, instructions plans and classroom activities in a developmentally appropriate approach. Kindergarten program is an example of these learning programs that is of particular interest because it influences children in very young age and shapes their cognitive development journey. Kindergarten learning programs should be designed on the natural approach for children learning as suggested by the cognitive development theories. The natural approach suggests that the physical, socio-emotional and cognitive development of children depends on activity and interactions with others (Driscoll, 2005). This means tha play is a key aspect of the Kindergarten learning programs and that is seen as phenomenon of thoughts and activity growth (Piaget, 1951). Play consists of activities performed for self-amusement that have behavioral, social, and psychomotor rewards. Play is directed towards the child, and the rewards come from within the individual child; it is enjoyable and spontaneous (Healthline.com). Play consists of different types that could be utilized to serve different needs of children in different situations and settings. Types of play range from physical play which involves jumping, running and other physical activities to the surrogate play at which ill children watch others play on their behalf. They also range from inactive observation play at which children prefer to stay away and watch to active associative at which children engage in group play that requires planning and co operation (Healthline.com). Play types also include expressive play which involves playing with materials (such as clay, play dough,à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) and the manipulative play that gives children the measure of control over others and their environm ent (for example, to throw a toy out of a cot, watch a parent pick it up, and then throw it out again). Symbolic play (also be referred to as dramatic play) is another important type of play at which children enact scenes where they substitute one object for another (for example, a child will use a stick to represent a spoon or a hair brush to represent a microphone). This kind of pretend play takes on various forms: The child may pretend to play using an object to represent other objects, playing without any objects and pretending that they are indeed present. Or the child may pretend to be someone else and imitate adults and experiment what it means to be an adult in a role they are exposed to in their surrounding environment (for example, mother, father, care-giver, doctor and so on). They may also pretend through other inanimate objects (e.g. a toy horse kicks another toy horse). Symbolic play in children can usually be observed during the beginning of the second year of life an d it has been linked through the studies and experiments to the cognitive problem solving skills, creative abilities, and emotional well-being. In the following sections of this paper, the major constructs and ideas proposed by Piaget and Vygotsky theories will be examined in relation to symbolic play for cognitive and knowledge development of children; and the implications of each theory for instruction and practice in Kindergarten educational settings. Theories of Cognitive Development: Piaget and Vygotsky It is a fact that most of the methods and approaches for teaching are driven from Piaget and Vygotsky research studies. They both offer teachers good proposals on how to teach certain learning materials in appropriate approach that matches the child developmentally conditions. Piaget (1896-1980) believed that children progress through an invariant sequence of four stages. Theses stages are not arbitrary but are assumed to reflect qualitative differences in children cognitive abilities (Driscoll, 2005, p.149). He proposed that each stage must represent a significant qualitative and quantitative change in children cognitive and that children progress through these stages in a culturally invariant sequence. Each stage will include the cognitive structures and abilities (schemes) of the previous stages (constructivism) which all will act as an integrated cognitive structure (accumulated knowledge) at that given stage (Driscoll, 2005). These knowledge structures (schemes) can be prepared, changed, add to or developed through two processes of assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation occurs when a child perceives new objects or events in term of existing scheme (Driscoll, 2005); in other words, within information the child already knows. Accommodation occurs when existing schemes are modified to adopt (or fit in) a new experience or information. If the new information doesnt fit or it conflicts with the existing scheme then the disequilibrium occurs. Equilibrium, however, is the master developmental process which encompasses both assimilation and accommodation and prepares for the child transaction from one state of the development to the next (Driscoll, 2005). Piaget stages of development are: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operations and formal operations. Sensorimotor stage is over the period between the birth to two years. During this stage, the child experiences the world around him through the senses and movement. The child develops object permanence which refers to the ability to understand an object exist even if it is not in field of vision (Woolfolk, 2004). Toward the end of this period, children begin to mentally represent object and events but to that point they only can act and during the transaction to the mental representation, they may use simple motor indicators as symbols for other events (Driscoll, 2005). They also begin to understand that their actions could cause another actions developing a goal-director behavior; for an example, throwing a toy from the cot to make parents pick the toy and pressing the doll button to make the sound and so on (kind of the manipulative play). Preoperational stage extends from the child second year to seventh year. According to Piaget, children have not yet mastered the ability of mental operation or to think through the actions (Woolfolk, 2004) but they acquire the semiotic function early in this period. This means that they are able to mentally represent the objects and events, as evidenced in their imitation of some activities long after it occurred (Driscoll, 2005). Hence, pretending, or symbolic play, is highly characteristic stage and the language acquisitions. One more interesting idea proposed by Piaget is that during this stage children are considered to be egocentric assuming that others share their points of view and which makes them engage in self monologue with no interacting with others (Woolfolk, 2004). Concrete operations period that is from seventh year to eleventh, is characteristic to be the hands-on period at which children overcome the limitation of egocentrism and learn through discovery learning while working (operating) with real tangible objects (Woolfolk, 2004). They become more internalized and able to create logical-mathematical knowledge resulting in operations (Driscoll, 2005). Formal operation occurs from eleventh year to adulthood and at which propositional logic is developed. Reaching this stage, children (who become adult) should be able to not only to think hypothetically but to plan systematic approaches to solve problems (Driscoll, 2005). The acquisition of the met-cognitive (thinking about thinking) is also an important characteristic of the formal operations. Piaget also believed in the active role of the child during development. He proposed that children act on their own environment and cognitive is rooted in the action (Driscoll, 2005). He acknowledged the social interaction aspect of the children development but only to move the child away from egocentrism to develop the social knowledge that can be learned only from other people (language, moral rules, values..). Although, Piaget theory of cognitive development proposed an integrated and beneficial framework for children learning that can be utilized by educators and parents to influence and enrich the learning process of the children; the theory has faced serious challenges and especially in the recent years with the contemporary research add to this filed. For an example, Piaget believed that all children, regardless of the culture, progress through four stages and once particular stage is reached, the regression to earlier stage cant occur. Replications of Piagets experiments have shown that children in different cultures do not pass through the same types of reasoning suggested in Piaget stages (Driscoll, 2005). Moreover, there are people, in any culture, who fail to reason at the formal operation level; we experience interacting with these people in our day-to-day life in personal and professional levels. Also, Piaget claimed that there must be a qualitative discontinues change in cognit ive from stage to stage; this has been questioned with the ability to accelerate development and the studies and experiments showed that that children can learn more than Piaget thought they could (Siegler Svetina 2002 as cited in Driscoll, 2005). One more is that children dont exhibit the characteristics of each stage; for example, children are sometimes egocentric beyond the proportional stage and the preoperational children are not egocentric all the time (Driscoll, 2005). However and despite these challenges, understanding Piagets proposed stages and development sequence suggests useful and effective certain learning and teaching strategies at each level. Example of these strategies as implications of Piaget theory will be discussed in the next section. Vygotsky (1896 -1943) proposed an alternative to the Piaget stages of cognitive development, he stated that children learn mainly by social interactions and their culture plays a major role to shape their cognitive (woolfolk, 2004). He believed that individual development could not be understood without reference to the social and cultural context within which such development is embedded (Driscoll, 2005, p.250). His theory suggests a co -constructed process of social interactions at which through children move toward individualized thinking. When a child receives a help through social interaction , the child then develops enhanced strategy to solve a similar problem if encountered in future. This co-constructed channel of communications between the child and his culture will lead to internalization and eventually to independent thinking (Woolfolk, 2004). A good example to understand social dialogue and internalization is what introduced by Vygotsky himself and cited in Driscoll (200 5) One a child stretching out her hand for an object she cant quite reach, an adult interprets the gesture of pointing and responds accordingly. Until the adult responds, the child is simply grasping for an object out of reach, however, the situation change with the adult respond to be a social exchange and the act of grasping takes on a shared meaning of pointing. When a child internalizes the meaning and uses the gesture as pointing, the interpersonal activity has been transferred into intrapersonal one. (p.252). The zone of proximate development is another principle introduced by Vygotsky. He agreed with Piaget that there is knowledge and skills associated with the child developmentally range of understanding, but he believed that with given help and support, children can perform problems that Piaget would consider out of their staged mental capabilities (Woolfolk, 2004). Scaffolding is the technique proposed by Vygotsky to support the discovery learning through social interaction and in the zone of approximate development. Scaffolding entails providing the child with a hint or clue to solve the problem. This encourages the child critical thinking and enhances his/her problem solving approach. Further, Vygotsky highlighted the importance of the mediation cultural tools to support learning and higher-level processing in children. These cultural signs and tools involve technological, symbolic and any available resource that aids in social communication (language, signs, symbols, media television, computer, booksà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦). Although the tools at hand may include sophisticated toys, children are successful at creating imaginary situations with sticks and other common objects in their environment. This leads into the symbolic play as a strategy for children teaching. Driscoll (2005) noted that in play, Vygotsky argued, children stretch their conceptual abilities and begin to develop a capacity for abstract thought; the signs they establish in their imaginations, in other word, can make up a very complex symbol system, which they communicate through verbal and nonverbal gestures(P.259). The development of language is another major principle that is proposed by Vygotsky s theory. Althoug didnt address specific implications for instruction of language, he believed that language constitutes the most important sign-using behavior to occur during the cognitive development and this is because it frees children from the constraints of their immediate environment. The language of a certain group of people reflects their own cultural beliefs and value system and children initially associate the words meaning to their contexts and life aspects till they learn to abstract the word from a particular concrete context (decontextualization). This process of decontextualization must occur with any symbol system if it is to serve higher mental functions such as reasoning (Driscoll, 2005, p. 259-260). Once again, Vygotsky suggested that symbolic play is important for language learning in young children. He also emphasized the importance of the private speech as a self-directed regula tion and communication with the self to guide actions and aid in thinking; this is in contrast to Piaget who viewed privative speech as egocentric (or immature) (Woolfolk, 2004). Undoubtedly, Piaget and Vygotsky introduced important views and suggestions on the cognitive development in children. Piaget suggested that the children progress through maturation stages and discovery learning with minimal social impact. Vygotsky, from other hand, stressed the importance of the cultural context and language on cognitive development. The following will browse, in general, some implications of the both theories for instructions in different educational settings then more specific for symbolic play in kindergarten. Implications for Instructions of Piaget and Vygotsky Educators and school systems have been applying the cognitive development theories of Piaget and Vygotsky in classrooms teaching for some time. The most important implications of the both theories are that the learning environment should support the discovery-learning and that child should be effectively involved in the learning process. They stressed the role of peer interaction and the symbolic play. Both also agreed that development may be triggered by cognitive conflict; this entails adopting instructional strategies that make children aware of conflicts and inconsistencies in their thinking (Driscoll, 2005). A good example of this would be the Socratic Dialogs which fosters the critical thinking through a series of questions and answers that enable learner to develop the understanding of the learning materials. However, Piaget and Vygotsky differ in the ways of guiding the discovery learning in children. Piaget recommended a very little teacher interference while Vygotsky prompted the teacher to guide the discovery learning offering questions to students and having them discover the answer by testing different options (Scaffolding). According to Piaget, teachers dealing with children in preoperational stage (like in kindergarten) are encouraged to incorporate the play as a pedagogic strategy; in play children are engaged in active self-discovery activities employing concrete object or symbolically. It also helps to understand that and since the children in this stage have not yet mastered the mental operations, the teacher should not only use action and verbal short instructions but also to demonstrate these instructions. Using visual aid is very important in this stage to create attractive and discovery-oriented learning environment (Driscoll, 2005). Moreover, is to pay attention to the egocentrism as a character of this stage, teachers are encouraged to be sensitive that children dont understand that not everyone else has their view or can understand the words they come up with (Woolfolk, 2004). It is important to in the stage to provide the children with a range of experiences and knowledge to build the found ation (basic scheme) for concept learning and languages those children are expected to master in coming stages. Teaching children in the concrete operation stage should involve hands-on learning at which children have the opportunity to test and manipulate objects, perform experiments and solve problems in order to develop logical and analogical thinking skills. Teacher should consider using familiar examples to explain the complex ideas and this is by linking to the existing knowledge of the learners (scheme). While teaching the students in formal operations stage requires teachers to offer student open-ended projects that enhance their advanced problem solving and reasoning skills. It is critical in this stage for the teachers to help learners understanding of the broad concepts and their applications in the real life. The teachers applying Vygotsky teaching methods would be very active player in their students education. The most popular technique to be utilized is the scaffolding at which teachers will provide assistance and the feedback as the knowledge source to support learning of new information. The teachers then will not present information in one sided way but will provide the guidance and assistance required for learners to bridge the gap between their skills level and the desired skills; when they are able to complete tasks on their own, the guidance and support will be withdrawn (Greenfield, 1984 cited in Driscoll 2005). Also teachers applying Vygotsky theory utilized the meditation tools and teach students how to use these tools in their learning (computers, books,à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦). Vygotsky emphasized the language and other sign systems (such as symbolic playing) as important tools for children learning. Language is the cultural communication tool that transmits history and cultural va lues between individuals and from parents and teachers toward children. Most importantly, is incorporating the group or peer learning as an important source of cognitive development. A good application of Vygotsky principles of social learning and the zone of approximate development zone is the strategy at which teachers encourage children with varying level of knowledge to help each other by allowing the child who master the skill to teach and guide his or her peer who still trying to master this skill. It is evident to be an effective learning strategy not only in children learning but also in adult learning. Piaget also believed that peer interactions are essential in helping children move beyond the egocentric and that children are more effective to provide information and feedback to other children about the validity of their logical constructions (Driscoll, 2005); hence the instructional strategies are favored that encourage peer teaching and social negotiation. Applying Piaget or Vygotsky, the teachers main goal should be to support learners and to provide the assistance plan that fulfill the learner needs and promote his thinking skills and cognitive development. Teachers should also prepare the learning environment that attracts children attention and encourages their self-discovery. The instruction plan should be designed on the premises that classrooms have students with different cultural, linguistic and knowledge backgrounds. In preparing learning activities, teachers should be able to get children to play and learn collaboratively and enhance their understanding through teacher feedback, peer feedback and social negotiation. Symbolic Play: Cognitive and Language Development As introduced, the cognitive development theories encourage play and symbolic play-in particular- as a pedagogic strategy for active self learning and language development. In play, the children initiate and take control of their activity (Driscoll, 2005); and this very nature of play along with other criteria are what distinguish play from other behaviors: play is essentially motivated with self-imposed goals, play is activity of spontaneous and pleasure, play is free from imposed rules, player is an active participants in the play; play focuses on means rather than ends, play is characteristics by the as if dimension that encourages children to use objects and gestures as if they were something else ( Hymans, 1991 ; Fein Rivikin as cited in Yan, Yuejuan Hongfen, 2005; Piaget, 1951; Rubin, Waston Jambor, 1978). In symbolic play that starts in second year of life, children use tools of objects, actions, language, signs and roles to represent something from their real or imagined world of experiences. It enables the children to build and express their understanding of either individual or social experience (Driscoll, 2005; Hymans, 1991; Lenningar, n.d; Lyytinen, Poikkeus Laakso, 1997; Piaget, 1951; Woolfolk, 2004). Symbolic play indicates that the child developed the two main cognitive operations: reversibility and decentralization; reversibility refers to the child awareness that he or she can come from the pretended role to the real world at any time while decentralization refers to the child understanding that the child in the play is still him/her at the same time with the person he/she is imitating (Rubin 1980 as cited in Marjanovic Lesnic, 2001). The next intellectual skill noticeable in the symbolic play is conservation which refers to the child ability to preserve the imaginary iden tity of the play materials despite the fact they are perceptually and could be functionally inadequate (Marjanovic Umek Lesnic Musek, 2001). The social element of the symbolic play is also a very important aspect to be considered for the cognitive development in the children. According to Vygotsky, children learn to use the tools and skills they practice with social parents; he also emphasized that learning occurs in social interactions and it is affected cultural context it occurs at. He further proposed that social interaction could lead to developmental delays or abnormal development as well as to normal or accelerated development (Driscoll, 2005). Piaget also highlighted the importance of social interaction for the children to develop beyond the egocentrism that is a characteristic of pre operational stage. The impact of symbolic play in this dimension is supported by Smilansky (1968) studies at which she proposed that social activities influence the development of the childs cognitive and social skills. When children are engaged in a role performance; they have to reach a agreement about the play idea, the course of actions and the transformation of roles and play materials and this can only be achieved when individuals come over their egocentrism and develop the ability to communicate and empathize (cited in Marjanovic Umek Lesnic Musek, 2001). Smilansky then developed the Scale for Evaluation of Dramatic and Socio-Dramatic Play; the scale tracks the progressive development in the use of the objects in the symbolic play over five stages. The first stage includes simple manipulation followed by the stage of imitating the adults activities of adults by using the model of the object as adult do (as using the hair brush as a microphone). In the third stage, the object becomes an instrument for enacting certain roles while in the forth stage the use of object/toy goes together with the speech and gestures. The final stage focuses in the speech without using objects or gestures (Smilansky 1968; Smilansky Shefatya, 1990 as cited in Marjanovic Umek Lesnic Musek, 2001). Smilansky scale supported also the role of symbolic play in the language development that was firstly proposed by Vygotsky and this language-play relation has been investigated all the way since then. The research studies discussed the component of the language in the context of symbolic play and mainly in the role playing part of it. In role playing, children engage in a communication dialogue with their playing parties. It is evident that the role playing and object transformations enable the childe to use lexicographic meanings and clear speech (Pellegrini Galda as cited in Marjanovic Umek Lesnic Musek, 2001). According to Lyytinen, Poikkeus and Lassko (1997); their study to observe and examine the relationship between language and play among 110 18-month-old children showed that early talkers of these children displayed significant more symbolic play than the late talkers ; a significant connection was found between the language comprehensive and percentage of symbolic play. Th is is supported by the study conducted by Marjanovic Umek and Lesnic Musek (2001) at which they compared three age groups of children in preschool settings with different level of play using Smilanskys Scale for the Evaluation of Dramatic and Socio-dramatic Play; the observations and results proved stronger use of the language in the function of defining roles, scenes and materials that are required for the play context. More interesting studies looked into the implications of symbolic play for the education of children with special needs and disorders such as Down syndrome and Autism. Example of these studies is the study conducted Stanley and Kinstantareas (2006) who investigated the relationship between symbolic play and other domains such as nonverbal cognitive abilities, receptive language, expressive language and social development among 131 children diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). The result indicates a significant positive relation between symbolic play and development of these domains in children with (ASD). The study also stressed that training in symbolic play will help to improve these children skills in other domains (Stanley Kinstantareas , 2006). Another recent study conducted by Venuti, Falco, Giusti and Bronstein (2008) to investigate the impact of mother-child interaction in the play on the cogitative functions of children with Down Syndrome concluded that such inter action leads to enhanced cognitive functioning (Venuti, Falco, Giusti Bronstein , 2008). Symbolic play, then, inked through the literature to the development of cognitive problem solving skills, linguistic transformation and creative abilities. It also supports the emotional and social development. Role playing is seen to be a way at which children escape from the real world conflicts into fantasy more comfortable world. From different aspect, it enhances the child self awareness and self directed through the positive feedback the child receives from parents and/or play mates. In term of social development, the children enjoy playful interactions with others starting with parents through whom they learn their culture values and aspects. An interaction with other children helps them to grasp the concepts of boundaries, taking turns, teamwork, competition, social negotiation, sharing, patience and the ability to deal with winning and losing emotions. Also, place assist the children physical and moral development. Physical play enhances the children motor skills as they run, jump and repeat more of pleasure full body movements. In the moral aspect, during the play with parents and other children, children begin to learn that cheating is not accepted and how they should respect others feeling and more of boundaries between the acceptable and unacceptable behaviors. Therefore, models of children learning and preschool education in professional settings are mainly driven from different understanding and implications of symbolic play which are in turn based on the premises of different cognitive development theories. Play and Learning: Educational Framework in Kindergarten Settings Children learn through play is the golden rule that any educational frameworks in the preschool (Kindergarten) settings should revolve around. According to the theories and studies discussed in this paper, the natural approach for children learning is dependent upon activities and discovery. Through touching, exploring, manipulating testing, imitating, and symbolic playing, children learn about their world. While through social interaction with other children and adults, they develop the language skills and learn about their culture, values, history, themselves and their relationships to others. The goal of the Kindergarten learning program is to help children to achieve a degree of self-confidence, to acquire social skills and to participate in activities that enable significant development in knowledge and language. The Kindergarten learning program then should engage children in different types of play that covers the range of physical, inactive, associative, solitary, parallel, surrogate (onlooker) and definitely the symbolic play. It is important to be sensitive to the developmentally characteristic of this stage of age and give the children the space for self-discovery and when instructed, instructions should visual, clear and short. The learning program should consider the stages of complexity of play in link to Scale for the Evaluation of Dramatic and Socio-dramatic Play in moving from simple touching and manipulation into object-free role playing. Teachers should be sensitive to the children differences and to the egocentrism characteristic of this age and encourage children gradually to engage in more collaborative kind of playing. For an example, the teacher can int

George Bush :: essays research papers

GEORGE BUSH The votes were in; the election was over. On the 20th of January 1989, Republican George Herbert Walker Bush became the forty-first president of the United States. After serving two previous terms as Ronald Reagan's Vice President, he defeated Governor of Massachusetts Michael S. Dukakis to earn his new title. Bush had become President at a time when many Americans were uncertain about their country's future. The federal government was intensely in debt due to prior years of budget deficits. Imported foods were more valuable then exports which questioned the United State's economic standing. Foreign policy was also a topic well discussed by Americans. Bush seemed to be doing a good job with it all and in the midst of his presidency a second term seemed to be a sure thing for him. However, the 1992 election marked the end of his reign; he lost by a great margin to democrat William J. Clinton who may I add was later impeached! George Bush was born on June 12, 1924, in Milton, Massachusetts to Prescott Sheldon Bush and Dorothy Walker Bush. Prescott Bush worked in an investing firm, but ended up moving his family to Connecticut where he later on developed a strong interest in politics which led to his position as Senator of Connecticut. Bush had three brothers and one sister who were all brought up strictly and well-mannered. He attended private Greenwich Day School and exclusive Phillips Academy where he was indeed popular. Along with his good grades, Bush was president of the senior class, captain of the baseball and soccer teams, and also played varsity basketball. After graduating prep school in 1942, his original plans of attending Yale University had been delayed due to the U.S. interest in World War II. He enlisted in the U.S. National Reserve where he received flight training and became the Navy's youngest pilot. In 1942, he flew the U.S.S. San Jacinto in the Pacific Ocean where he took part in d angerous fighting. His plane was shot down, but luckily, unlike his two crew members, he was rescued by the U.S.S. Finback, a U.S. submarine. Bush was recognized for his brave, heroic efforts by receiving the Distinguished Flying Cross, and after recovery served at the Oceana Naval Air Station until the end of the war in August of 1945. Shortly before the end of the war, George Bush married Barbara Pierce, a lady he once met at a Christmas dance.

Austronesians

The Austronesians as Viewed by Peter Bellwood, Wilhelm Solheim II, and Zeus Salazar Prepared by Jezza Mae S. Dajac The term Austronesian contextually refers to a population group present in Southeast Asia or Oceania who speaks, or had ancestors who spoke, one of the Austronesian languages. Apart from the Polynesian people of Oceania, the Austronesian people include: Taiwanese Aborigines, the majority ethnic groups of East Timor, Indonesia and Malaysia. There had been several theories that posit the Austronesians as the origin of the Philippine population.Among the leading proponents of these ideas are Australian National University professor Peter Bellwood, American anthropologist and the most senior practitioner of archaeology in Southeast Asia Wilhelm Solheim II, and Filipino anthropologist Zeus Salazar. Their viewpoints are to be separately presented here. Bellwood's Austronesian Diffusion Theory/ Out-of-Taiwan (OOT) Hypothesis/ Mainland Origin Hypothesis Rather than believing tha t Austroloids were the ancestors of the Filipino race, Professor Bellwood argued that Austronesians were the roots of the population inhabiting most of the Asian territories today.His Out-of-Taiwan Hypothesis is based largely on linguistics and is mainly derived from American linguistic Robert Blust’ model of Austronesian diffusion, lately known as the Blust model. Bellwood incorporated archaeological data to Blust’s idea to arrive at his own theory. He posited that between 4500 BCE and 4000 BCE, developments in agricultural technology in the  Yunnan Plateau  in China  created pressures which drove certain people to migrate to  Taiwan. This is what explains the term â€Å"Out-of-Taiwan Hypothesis†.Bellwood also believed that these people either already had or began to develop a unique language of their own, which he referred to as â€Å"Proto-Austronesian†. By around 3000-3500 BCE, these groups started differentiating into three or four distinct s ubcultures, and by 2500 to 1500 BC, one of these groups began migrating southwards towards the Philippines and  Indonesia, reaching as far as  Borneo  and the  Moluccas  by 1500 BCE, forming new cultural groupings and developing unique languages.He called all the languages formed outside Taiwan â€Å"Malayo-Polynesian†. Meanwhile, the language developed in the Philippines and Indonesia was then termed â€Å"Western Malayo-Polynesian† By 1500 BC, some of these groups started migrating west, rand they reached the Madagascar  area around the 1st millennium. Still others migrated east, settling as far as  Easter Island  by the mid-13th century.This widespread movement gave the Austronesian language group the distinction of being the most widely distributed language groups in the world at that time, in terms of the geographical span of the homelands of its languages. Bellwood’s simplified theory about the origin of the Filipino race then, is that the people of the Philippines are the descendants of those cultures who remained on the Philippine islands when others moved first southwards, then eastward and westward.Solheim's Nusantao Maritime Trading and Communication Network (NMTCN) or the Island Origin Theory According to the anthropologist Wilhelm Solheim II: â€Å"I emphasize again, as I have done in many other articles, that ‘Austronesian' is a linguistic term and is the name of a super language family. It should never be used as a name for a people, genetically speaking, or a culture. To refer to people who speak an Austronesian language the phrase ‘Austronesian speaking people' should be used. This statement emphasized that the pioneers of the Austronesian-as-the-origin-of-Southeast Asians idea posits that the Austronesian is a group of languages rather that a group of people. Wilhelm Solheim's concept of the  Nusantao Maritime Trading and Communication Network  (NMTCN), while not strictly a theory regardin g the biological ancestors of modern Southeast Asians, does suggest that the patterns of cultural diffusion throughout the Asia-Pacific region are not what would be expected if such cultures were to be explained by simple migration.Where Bellwood based his analysis primarily on linguistic analysis, Solheim's approach was based on artifact findings. On the basis of a careful analysis of artifacts such as improvement of traditional lithic chopper and chopping tools, he suggests the existence of a trade and communication network that first spread in the Asia-Pacific region during its Neolithic age (and that which he referred to as the Nusantao Maritime Trading and Communication Network).For his theory, he coined the term â€Å"nusantao† which means â€Å"island people†. He also presented a different route of movement of the Austronesians from that of Bellwood’s model. According to Solheim's NMTCN theory, this trade network, consisting of both Austronesian and non-A ustronesian seafaring peoples, was responsible for the spread of cultural patterns throughout the Asia-Pacific region, not the simple migration (or movement, as Bellwood put it) proposed by the Out-of-Taiwan hypothesis.Solheim consequently came up with four geographical divisions delineating the spread of the NMTCN over time, and he called these geographical divisions â€Å"lobes. † Specifically, these were the central, northern, eastern and western lobes. The central lobe was further divided into two smaller lobes reflecting phases of cultural spread: the Early Central Lobe and the Late Central Lobe. Instead of Austronesian peoples originating from Taiwan, Solheim placed the origins of the early NMTCN peoples in the â€Å"Early Central Lobe,† which was in eastern coastal Vietnam, at around 9000 BC.He then suggests the spread of peoples around 5000 BC towards the â€Å"late central lobe†, including the Philippines, via island Southeast Asia, rather than from the north as the Taiwan theory suggests. Thus, from the Point of view of the Philippine peoples, the NMTCN is also referred to as the  Island Origin Theory. This â€Å"late central lobe† included Southern China and Taiwan, which became â€Å"the area where Austronesian became the original language family and  Malayo-Polynesian developed. In about 4000 to 3000 BC, these peoples continued spreading east through Northern Luzon to Micronesia to form the Early Eastern Lobe, carrying the Malayo-Polynesian languages with them. These languages would become part of the culture spread by the NMTCN in its expansions Malaysia and western towards Malaysia before 2000 BC, continuing along  coastal India  and Sri Lanka up to the western coast of Africa and  Madagascar; and over time, further eastward towards its easternmost borders at Easter Island.Thus, as in the case of Bellwood's theory, the Austronesian languages spread eastward and westward from the area around the Philippines. Aside from the matter of the origination of people, the difference between the two theories is that Bellwood's theory suggests a linear expansion, while Solheim's NMTCN theory suggests something more akin to concentric circles, all overlapping in the geographical area of the late central lobe which includes the Philippines. Salazar’s View of the AustronesiansZeus Salazar, like Solheim, believed that the Austronesians carried with them their culture as they spread all over Southeast Asia. However, he further posited that there are â€Å"gaps† between the technological knowledge as demonstrated by the late development of technology in the middle regions of the country. These gaps, according to Salazar, were due to the prolonged stay of the Austronesians in coastal areas of the country before penetrating to the inner regions.Nevertheless, he admits that the Austronesians were the ones responsible for culminating a great part of the Philippine culture and civilization. He once stated, â€Å"Ang pinakatiyak na migrasyon hanggang ngayon ay yaong tungo sa karagatan, ang pagsasaibayong-dagat ng mga Austronesyano, ang pinakamaagang ninuno ng mga Pilipino†¦ Sila’y nagdaan sa peninsula tungong Indonesia muna upang mapunta pagkatapos sa Pilipinas, sa Pasipiko, at sa Madagascar. ————————————————- This statement of Salazar reflected his parallel ideas to that of Solheim’s. However, he is known to focus more on studying linguistic aspects and evidences about the Austronesian’s diffusion, and he later found out that several Filipino words such as dalubhasa, balita, bahay, aso, niyog, araw, anito, karayom, mana, and apoy among others, were of Austronesian origin. ————————————————-Setting aside the fact that there ar e numerous theories about the origin of the Filipino race, with each one positing their own assumptions, it still cannot be denied that they collectively help in understanding and reconstructing our own history as they lead to further and more inquiry about our fragmented past. Whatever theory one may believe in, the important thing is that prejudices and biases are removed and instead, being scientific is employed in our search for a clearer and more solid view of the Philippine prehistory. ——————————————– 1 ]. Our Pacific Ocean, The Austronesian, http://www. ourpacificocean. com/austronesian_people/index. htm (October 2012) [ 2 ]. Claims have been made that Bellwood formulated his theory with K. C. Chang of Harvard University, specifically by M. C. Halili in the book Philippine History (Manila:Rex Bookstore, Inc. , 2004) p. 40 [ 3 ]. See Solheim’s Archaeology and Culture in Southeast Asia : Unraveling the Nusantao (Quezon City: UP Press, 2006)p. 85 [ 4 ]. Bellwood preferred using the term â€Å"movement† instead of â€Å"migration†. [ 5 ].See Solheim’s Archaeology and Culture in Southeast Asia: Unraveling the Nusantao (Quezon City: UP Press, 2006) for further elaboration. [ 6 ]. Origins of the Filipinos and Their Languages. (January 2006). [ 7 ]. See Salazar’s Kabihasnang Asyano : Isang Pangkasaysayang Introduksyon (1990) p. 94 [ 8 ]. See Solheim’s Archaeology and Culture in Southeast Asia: Unraveling the Nusantao (Quezon City: UP Press, 2006) p. 83 [ 9 ]. Ibid. [ 10 ]. Ibid. [ 11 ]. Ibid. [ 12 ]. Zeus A. Salazar, Kabihasnang Asyano : Isang Pangkasaysayang Introduksyon (1990) p. 99 [ 13 ]. Zeus A. Salazar, Ang Kasaysayan, Diwa at Lawak (Quezon: UP Press, 1974)

Introduction to fashion

Diploma in Fashion Design Principles of Fashion Unit 2 unit 2 On successful completion of this unit the learner will be able to: Explain how the elements of fashion appeal influence the purchaser Describe the classification of clothing according to their use and types Explain factors which affect the decision to buy in fashion Describe the process of the product development in fashion industry Explain the main areas of fashion wear production including an understanding of the key terms, concepts, facts and principles, rules and theories of the field, discipline or practice.Fashion Design One of the most important factors which differentiate humans from other animals is their use of clothing. It is used not simply to provide a micro-climate for the wearer's body, but also to conceal the body and reveal its wearer's status and personality to others. To satisfy this concealing and revealing process diverse kinds of clothing are used. One of the most mysterious aspects of clothing is fas hion. Clothing expresses status; social class is apparent in the boss's business suit and the worker's Shares at work, although this difference may disappear at the weekend.Clothing changes when the wearer leaves the cradle, enters primary school, secondary school or university, on starting work, on getting married, on gaining promotion. Even death has a special wardrobe, both for the dead and the mourners. Clothing establishes a person's identity; reflects the wearer's goals and moral principles; communicates self-assurance or the lack of it; and conveys the activity a person is about to engage in. Clothing may also be used as costume, to represent something a person is not; and as a uniform to denote a person's membership of a defined group.Fashion in the narrow sense of the world meaner the changing form of clothing. These originate from peoples need to be adorned and admired but also allow the opportunity to enhance personal style or indicate a position in society. Fashion is no t the only consideration in developing a garment for a market. The overall appearance (style) as well as the utility value (fitness for purpose, aftercare). Creating or styling the appearance of a person with reference to clothing, accessories and beauty in corresponding with the personality of any individual is fashion designing. Fashion Design TermsA fashion designer conceives garment combinations of line, proportion, color, and texture. He or she may or may not know how to sew or make patterns. Formal training is always essential, yet most fashion designers are formally trained (apprenticed) and schooled. A pattern maker drafts the shapes and sizes of a garment's pieces with paper and measuring tools, and, sometimes, an Autocrat computer software programmer, or by draping muslin on a dress form, the original way. The resulting pattern pieces must compose the intended design of the garment and they must fit the intended wearer.Formal training is essential for working as a pattern marker. A tailor makes custom designed garments made to the client's measure; suits (coat and trousers, Jacket and skirt, etc). A textile designer designs fabric weaves and prints for clothes and furnishings. Most textile designers are formally trained as apprentices and in school. A stylist is the person who co-ordinates the clothes, Jewelry, and accessories used in fashion photography and catwalk presentations of clothes collections. A stylist also is a designer whose designs are based upon extant things, trends, and the collections of other designers.A buyer orders stocks of clothes for shops, chain stores, and other types of stores. Most fashion buyers are trained in business studies. A teacher of fashion design teaches the art and craft of fashion in art schools and in fashion design school. A custom clothier makes custom- made garments to order, for a given customer. A dressmaker specializes in custom- made women's clothes: day, cocktail, and evening dresses, business clothes and suits, trousseau, sports clothes, and lingerie. An illustrator draws and paints clothes for commercial use.A model wears and displays clothes at fashion shows and in photographs. A fashion journalist writes fashion articles describing the garments presented, for magazines or newspapers. An alterations specialist (alterations) adjusts the fit of completed garments, usually ready-tower, and sometimes re-styles them. NOTE: despite tailors altering garments to fit the client, not all alterations are tailors. A wardrobe consultant or fashion advisor recommends styles and colors that are flattering to the client. A photographer photographs the clothes on fashion models for use in magazines, newspapers, or adverts.Fashion Flow Chart Classification of Fashion The duration of fashion's importance is a critical fashion designers or manufactures concern. A fashion can be brief or of long duration. Once having identified this characteristic, a designer is in a position to assess a fashions importance to the retail inventory. Fashion is classified into many types, such as: Style Basic or classic Fad Fashion Forecasting Trends a) Style Style is always constant. It does not change whereas fashion changes. It is the modification of fashion. Style is the basic outline of any garment.When we use a different neckline and different sleeves with some trimming here and there over a Asia garment then the basic garment is modified into a different look or a different outfit, this modification ferment will become fashion, when it is accepted by people. The term style is a popular word in fashion and refers to a sub-division within fashion. By definition, it is that which has certain characteristics that distinguish it from other designs. For example, the fashion could be pleated skirt, yet the style is box pleat. It is a common fallacy to believe that the famous designers create fashions.They create styles which they hope will be accepted. When and if there is consumer support the style then becomes fashion. It is repetitious but important to stress that fashion is synonymous with acceptance. B) Basic or Classics When a fashion is constant or long lasting, such as, T shirt and skirt, it is called Basic or Classic. It is similar to a standard music. The T shirt and skirt are part of fashion scene. A customer has one or more in her wardrobe, to be worn to suit different occasions. In certain times, the basic becomes the most important profitable fashion, but, in or out, they remain as a part of the fashion scene.There are many outfits that fall into this classification, such as, shirt and trousers, plain or pleated skirts and denims, etc. There are general fashions that lasts for years, such as, the skirt, the single breasted men's suit Basics or Classics are the outfits which stays in the fashion scene for a long period of time that is from past to present and even in future it stands When we watch old movies as well as the new movies which are released Just, we can see the skirts, or denims worn in it may be with a slight change or modification accordingly. ) Fad A Fad is something which can either make a designer's life more interesting or tenser. Very often something appears on the fashion scene that captures the imagination, only to fizzle out in short duration. Overall, Fad can be defined as short lived fashion, lasting for a very little time or period, acceptable by only a certain group of people for example, hippies – their clothing, accessories, hairstyles, etc. As Fad is short lived fashion, it stays for a very short period, because they are very costly and every one cannot afford to buy it. D) Fashion Forecasting is a global career that focuses on upcoming trends.A fashion forecaster predicts the colors, fabrics and styles that will be presented on the runway and in the stores for the upcoming seasons. The concept applies to not one, but all levels of the fashion industry including haute couture, ready-to-wear, mass mar ket, and street wear. Trend forecasting is an overall process that focuses on other industries such as automobiles, medicine, food and beverages, literature, and home furnishings. Fashion forecasters are responsible for attracting consumers and helping retail business's and designers sell their brands.Today, fashion industry workers rely on the Internet to retrieve information on new looks, hot colors, celebrity wardrobes, and designer collections. Fashion Forecasting is done through any communicating media, such as, cinema, fashion shows, press, magazines, newspapers and window display. It includes: Market research Consumer research Surveys Consumer focus groups In-store informal interviews Shopping Sales Records Evaluating the collections Fashion Trends Trend for Target Markets e) Trends Fashion trends are the styling ideas that major collections have in common.They indicate the direction in which fashion is moving. Fashion forecasters look for the styles they think are prophetic, ideas that capture the mood of the times and signal a new fashion trend. Several designers may use a similar fashion idea because they eve been inspired by common sources. The trend may appear in a fabrication, a silhouette, or another design element that appears in several collections. Very often, a new trend appears in small doses until it spreads to other collections. As the press notices similarities between collections and highlights them, the media exposure also helps establish the trends.Evaluating the collections becomes one way a designer, working for a mainstream manufacturer, can research fashion direction. As designers are not invited to the shows, they must evaluate by shopping in major fashion vitals or u s I n g design services, magazines, and newspapers. For retail buyers, it is becoming a huge challenge to figure out which trends will become fashion basics, like Capri's, and which are only fads, such as pony prints. Buyers have to become very flexible in their buyi ng patterns and cautious about inventory management.If the market becomes flooded with a new trend, consumers may react negatively to the overexposure. Empowered by the Internet and television, global trends are moving at an accelerating pace. The life-span of a trend is now about five months instead of a year. For the Junior market, the span is only three months. Chic Chic is a French word, established in English since at least the sass, that has come to mean smart or stylish. Over the years â€Å"chic† has been applied to, among other things, social events, situations, individuals, and modes or styles of dress.Recurring generic terms included designer chic (associated with the styles of particular couturiers – the sass became known as the â€Å"designer decade†) and retro-chic (adopting elements of fashion from the past: e. G. â€Å"Victorian chic†, â€Å"sixties chic†, â€Å"Georgian chic†, â€Å"sass Riviera chic† Collection Each season, the design and merchandising departments of each division are expansible for creating a new line, the seasonal collection that the manufacturer will sell to retail store buyers. The terms are synonymous: the term ‘collection' is used primarily in Europe and for high-period apparel in the United States. Line' is used more often in the United States for moderately and popularly priced fashion. Fashion shows Fashion shows are special events that communicate a fashion story. The selection and organization of the fashions and model bookings may be done by the fashion office, whereas invitations and other arrangements may be handled by the special events department. There are four possible ways to organize these presentations: formal shows, department shows, designer trunk shows, or informal modeling. ) Formal Fashion Shows Formal fashion shows take a great deal of advance planning involving booking models and fittings and arranging for a runway, scenery, lighting, microphon es, music, seating, and assistants. Clothes are generally grouped according to styling, color, or other visual criteria. Models and music are selected to complement the clothes and set a mood. B) Designer Trunk Shows Designer trunk shows are done in cooperation with a single vendor and are a popular ay to sell expensive collections.Invitations are sent to the best customers according to records kept by sales associates. The designer or a representative travels from store to store with the collection, which is usually shown on models in the designer collections department. Customers get to see the entire collection unedited by a buyer and may order from the samples in their size. Although some designers and retailers do 50 percent of their total business through trunk shows, others find them time-consuming, exhausting work, and have given them up. C) Department Fashion ShowsDepartment fashion shows, on a much smaller scale, are produced in store to generate immediate sales. Usually, a platform is set up directly in the department that carries the clothes. D) Informal Fashion Shows Informal fashion shows are the easiest to produce. A few models walk through the store showing the fashions that they are wearing to customers who are shopping or having lunch in the store's restaurant. The models can take their time, and customers enjoy asking them questions. This is often done in conjunction with a trunk show or special promotion. Criteria Consumers Use in Fashion SelectionTo determine the acceptability of fashion, both manufacturers and consumers should consider the criteria used for its selection. Elements of fashion appeal draw the consumer's attention to a fashion. There are also practical considerations, including quality and price that the consumer usually evaluates before making a purchase. Elements of Fashion Appeal The elements of fashion appeal are basically the same as the elements of design, but here they are viewed by the purchaser rather than the creat or: a) Color Usually the first aspect of a garment or accessory to which consumers respond is, color.People relate very personally to color, usually selecting or rejecting a fashion because the color does or does not appeal to them or flatter their own coloring. Texture: The surface interest in the fabric of a garment or accessory is called texture. Consumers relate to texture because of its sensuous appeal. B) Style The elements that define a style include line, silhouette, and details. A garment's appearance is also affected by hanger appeal. Depending on the consumers' level of fashion consciousness, their Judgment will be conditioned by their opinion of what is currently fashionable.Practical Considerations a) Price Price is probably the most important practical consideration for the average consumer. The consumer evaluates the total worth of all the fashion appeal aspects of the garment or accessory and their relationship to its retail price. B) Fit The try-on is a crucial step in the consumer's selection of a garment because sizing is not a guarantee of fit. The Department of Commerce has tried to set sizing standards, but each company tends to vary somewhat. Each company tries its sample garments on models that are typical of the company's customers.However, it is difficult to set size ranges and grading rules to fit every figure. The fitting room try-on further enables the customer to Judge if fashion-appeal elements are suitable to his or her figure type or general appearance. C) Appropriateness It is important that a fashion item be suitable or acceptable for a specific occasion or for the needs of the consumer's life-style. For example, life in a large city requires more formality in clothing than life in the country. Impulse shoppers do not consider appropriateness and therefore purchase any items that do not fit into their wardrobe. ) Brand Brands are a manufacturer's meaner of product identification. Some consumers buy n the basis of a particular brand's reputation, often as result of heavy advertising. Consumer Demand a) Fabric Performance and Care The durability of a garment or accessory and the ease or difficulty of caring for it, are often factors in selection. Most consumers prefer easy-care, wash-and-wear fabrics, although designer and contemporary customers may not mind paying for dry- cleaning the more delicate fabrics they prefer. Easy care and durability are of special concern in children's wear and work clothes.Government regulations now require fiber-content and care-instruction labels to be sewn into apparel. B) Workmanship This term refers to the quality of construction, stitching, and finishing. Quality standards have fallen as labor costs rise and managements favor more profitable balance sheets. Unfortunately, many consumers cannot and do not bother to evaluate workmanship. The generation born and raised since World War II has not been exposed to fine workmanship and therefore does not demand it. The Junior customer cares little about quality; she is likely to throw away a garment before it wears out.The designer, contemporary, or missy customer, on the other hand, generally considers clothing an investment and may not mind spending more for the assisting qualities of fine detailing and workmanship. Meeting Consumer Demand To meet consumer demand and changes in consumer life-styles, manufacturers and retailers have developed various size and price ranges as well as categories for styling and clothing a) Size Ranges Each size range caters to a different figure type. The Junior customer, sizes 3 to 15, has a less developed figure and a shorter back-waist length (a higher waistline) than the missy figure.The missy figure, sizes 6 to 16 (or 4 to 14, or 8 to 18), is fully developed. In missy separates, some blouses and sweaters are sized 30 to 36 (8 to 14), or small, medium, ND large. Sizing 30 to 36 was originally inches, but sizes have grown over the years. Petite sizes come in both Juni or and missy. Junior petite is meant for shorter Junior figures; petite sizes in missy (2 and up) are for smaller proportioned missy figures. Large or women's sizes, used for sportswear, are 36 to 52 for uppers Jackets and shirts) and 30 to 40 for lowers (pants and skirts). There is a current void of half-size sportswear. ) It is difficult to compare sizes from country to country. Particularly in France, the sizing is not always standard. Men's suits range in size from 36 to 44 (with additional rage sizes to 50), based on chest measurements. Lengths are designated after the size number: R for regular, S for short, and L for long. European sizes are 46 to 54 Oust add 10 to each American size). Young men's sizes, equivalent to Junior sizes for women, have a narrower fit in the Jacket and hip and a shorter rise in the trouser than regular men's sizes.Dress shirts are sized by collar measurement (inches in America and centimeters in Europe) and sleeve length. Sport shirts are sized in s mall, medium, and large. Trousers are sized by waist and inseam measurements. Children's wear is sized by age group. Infant sizes are based on age in months, usually 3, 6, 9, 12, and 18. However, since development varies so much from child to child, many manufacturers are now also identifying weight ranges on their labels. B) Price Ranges A garment should give good value for its price. There are many price ranges, each with a different level of customer expectations.As the price goes up, the customer expects higher quality in fashion, fabric, fit, and finish. Designer garments are becoming so expensive that the group of people who can afford them is shrinking. Therefore, many designers are adding less expensive lines. On the other hand, many retail stores are trading up. That is, stores with low-end (inexpensive) merchandise are now trying to give themselves a fashionable image. Each garment manufacturer generally specializes in one price range. The designer and merchandiser must co nsider the cost of every fabric trim or construction detail that goes into a garment.Costs must fit into a specific price range. In turn, each retail store has various departments, from budget to designer, again classified by price range. C) Style Ranges Both women's dresses and women's sportswear currently come in style ranges as well as size ranges. Some of the terms overlap because style ranges grew out of age groups. However, many women today cross the boundaries, dressing to fit their figure and personality rather than their age needs. Designer: Formerly, couture would have been the classification for better, more expensive fashion.The decline in the couture business, however, gave rise to the general classification of designer clothes. Today even some of the designer ready to- wear is as expensive as couture used to be. Missy: These are more conservative adaptations of proven or accepted designer looks; they utilize less expensive fabrics and less extreme silhouettes. Contempo rary or updated: This is a sophisticated approach to styling based on the directions set by French, Italian, English, Japanese, and American ready-to-wear. Designers of expensive clothes are also marketing less expensive lines for contemporary departments.Designer and contemporary styling has carried over to men's wear, although designer clothes for men tend to be more classic than those for women. Sportswear or related separates for men have followed almost the same trends as women's sportswear in the last ten years, especially since many designers are doing both. Small children's styling is the only styling not aimed at the consumer who will wear the garment. The consumer in this case is a parent, grandparent, or other adult. Children's clothes of the past tended to be fussy, but now they are more functional.Older children today have more definite opinions on what they want to wear, partly because of advertising and television exposure and peer-group pressures. This development ha s had an effect on styling. Areas of Fashion Design Many professional fashion designers start off by specializing in a particular area of fashion. The smaller and the more specific the market, the more likely a company is o get the right look and feel to their clothes. It is also easier to establish oneself in the fashion industry if a company is known for one type of product, rather than several products.Once a fashion company becomes established (that is, has regular buyers and is well-known by both the trade and the public), it may decide to expand into a new area. It is usually safest for a company to expand into an area similar to the one it already knows. For example, a designer of women's sportswear might expand into men's sportswear. A) Women's Wear Women's clothes have many classifications: lingerie, dresses, evening clothes, suits, outerwear, and sportswear. There are also specialty categories, such as bridal gowns and maternity clothes.In addition, there is a huge array o f accessories within the general categories of wraps, head coverings, handbags, and footwear. B) Lingerie Lingerie includes undergarments, sleepwear, and lounger. Interest in designing lingerie is increasing because women again desire pretty things and will spend the money to have them. C) Dresses Dresses range from the very tailored with crisp lines for wearing on the Job, to the very softest with gathers and ruffles for dressy occasions. D) Evening clothes Evening clothes run the gamut from party pajamas through long and short cocktail dresses to opulent gowns. ) Suits are Jackets and skirts Suits are Jackets and skirts (or pants) sold together as units. Suits also range from the soft â€Å"dressmaker† suit to the strictly tailored. F) Outerwear Outerwear has primarily a protective function: it covers us and keeps us warm or dry. Outerwear includes coats, capes, and heavy Jackets. Its warmth may come from traditional wool or quilting; rainwater receives a water-repellent tr eatment. G) Sportswear Sportswear is the category that has grown the most over the years, as leisure time ND discretionary income have increased.Sportswear can be classified as active or spectator. H) Spectator Spectator sportswear was intended for watching sports events, although the term now includes sportswear worn for day-to-day activities. I) Active sportswear Active sportswear is created for movement and worn for participation in sports. Sportswear lines are organized in two different ways: in separates such as skirts, pants, blouses, shirts, sweaters, and tops; or as coordinate sportswear, pieces intended to be mixed and matched but priced separately. J) Men's WearMen's Wear: There are now almost as many categories available to men as to women. Stores use elaborate promotions to lure their increasingly fashion-wise male customers. K) Tailored clothing Tailored clothing for men includes suits, overcoats, topcoats, sport coats, and separate trousers for both day and evening wea r. L) Furnishings include shirts, necklace, sweaters, tops, underwear, socks, robes, and pajamas m) Sportswear is made up of related separates that fill the demand for more leisure and casual wear. N) Active sportswear includes windbreakers, ski Jackets, Jogging suits, tennis shorts, and the like.